Types Of Software Testing Computer Science Essay

Types Of Software Testing Computer Science Essay Software testing gives independent view of the software to which allow the business to understand the risks of implementating the software. The software Test system are not limited to executing a program or application to finding software bugs in existing software or the developed one which has created for customer request. Software Testing can also define as the process of validating and verifying software programe, application and product meets the business requirements which helped to design and developthe software.The most software testing occur when requirements fulfilled and system has developed for execution of programe. Software Testing Team The software testing mostly done by professional software testers. The software tester term was used generally until 1980, but after 1980 the software tester term became a proper separate profession. In software testing there were many roles has been established like,Managers, test lead, test designer, tester and test administrator. Functional Testing The functional testing normally takes test to vereify some specific function of the code and also action of that code.These kind of testing normally found in those documentation of code requirements.The functional testing of software normally takes to answer some following question i.e.user are ables to do thisor does particular part of codeing or feature work. NON Fnctional Testing The Non functional testing normally takes test of software that could not be related to specific function,user action.like security.The Non functional testing normally takes to answer following question for example how many user can log on at once or is it possible to hack this software easly. Software validation and verification: The software testing can take place in association of validation and verification of software. Verification: The verification of software testing means that to know if Software which has developed is that built right.for example it fulfill or match the user requirements or specification of software. Validation: The validation of software means that have we built the right software.i.e.is it that software which customer wants to be built. The software Testing Methods The box approach There issoftware testing approach which can taken to perform software testing. The Box approach The box approach manly divide into two parts Black box testing white box testing Black Box Testing The black box testing will treat software as black box,that means this testing will take without knowing any knowledge of internal implementation of software.The Black box testing approach include.fuzz testing,model based testing and specification based testing. Specification-based testing: The specification testing use to test the functionalty of software system according to requirements.The software tester inputs the data and will only be able to see the output on test object.This type of testing normally requires some test cases to provided the tester and the tester can verify that data with given input the output of testing either is or is not same as it was expected . The specification testing is important or necessary but this would not be good for some certain risks. White Box Testing. The white box testing is another method which test the software.The white box testing method is done when the tester has internal access of data structures and programe code that implement .Here is few types of white box testing API Testing Code Coverage Testing Fault Ijection Testing Static Testing API Testing: The API stands for application programming interface .The API testing will test those application which using both public and private API. Code Coverage Tsting:This testing purpose is to test some code coverage.For example The software tester will take test on all programming code to execute once while testing the software. Fault Ijection Testing:This testing purpose is that improve the code coverage. Static testing:In static testing all the testing which took in white box testing is static testing. Testing Levels There are few testing level Unit Testing Integration Testing System Testing System Integration Testing Regression Testing Alpha Testing Beta Testing Security Testing Unit Testing:The unit test is takes to test the functionality of some particular section of programe code.This testing normally takeing at functional level of programe.for example In Object Oriented language this testing will be taken at class level,the unit test in object oriented include destructor and constructor.these tests are normally written of those testers who work on coding to make sure that every specific part of codeing is working properly.In this testing there could be many tests taken at one fuction of coding.The only unit testing can not test the functionalty of software.The software works independently.The unit testing also called component testing. Integration testing:The integration testing is type of software testing that verify the interfaces between components against a software design. The components of software could integrated in an repertation of process or together .The integration software testing will test to find the defects in the interfaces and interaction between integrated components. The large number of software tester groups will test all the elements of design of system and will test until the software works perfectly. System Testing:The system testing will tests the complete system to make sure the software fulfill all requirements. System Integration Testing:The system integration testing is that if any third party or external member wants to intergate with this system will be able to do and the system define the system requirements. Regression Testing:The Regression testing means the tester will focus on finding a defect after the major part of coding for some reasons has been changed.In this testing the software tester focus on old errors that could occur again.Those regressions happen whenever software functionality which was working before test but stops working after that.The regression happen when some code changes,for example when the newly built code of software collide with old code or existing code.The mane purpose of regession testing is that testing that software which has already been tested means retesting again whether the previously resolve fault may have come back.The fully testing is happen when software is in release phase and when there will be risk for developer will add some more features.The changes depends on early part of builting a software. Alpha Testing:The alpha testing is that which have been done by the end user ,customers or an independent means the actual user who is going to use this software will test this software at developers site.The alpha testing is normally done before the software will go sale or before handing to customer.i.e.off the shelf testing after this software will go for beta testing Beta Testing:The beta testing will take after alpha testing.The beta testing means that the software will release for limited people outside the developers to check the functionalty of software.The other purpose of testing is the further testing will take to find bugs or faults.sometimes the beta version of software will release to open public to get more feedback from maximum number of peoples. Security Testing:The security testing is most important for any software that process the personal details of customers data .The security is important to prevent system from hackers. Sample Testing Cycle There is commonly used cycle for testing.The below sample is very commonly used with in organisations which is using waterfall development model. Requirements analysis: This phase should begin in requirements phase of software development life cycle.In design phase tester work with software developer determine what design of software is testable. Test Planning: The test planning or test plan in this there will be many test taken so there should be plan for testing. Test Development:The test developer or Test procedures, test data, to use in testing software. Test Execution: The tester will execute the software based on plan and will report any bugs or errors to developer. Test Reporting: In this phase once the testing is completed then tester will make final report on their test which they have taken throw many phases and report will show whether the software is ready to release or not. Test result analysis: The test result analysis or Defect Analysis,is normally done by the developers with client and make them sure what defects should be treated.for example the software is working properly or it could be done later. Defect Retesting:In this phase once defect has dealt by developers than it will bw retested by testing team. Regression Testing: In any programe it is likely to have samll testing program built into software to test when user wants and it make sure when new development or fixed software and modfied will come to software will not disturb the software completely.The complete software will working properly. Test Clousure:After completeing all test and test fulfill the exit requirements than it is important to key outputd ,logs and documents related to software should kept safe for future development..

Effects of Oestrogen Changes

Effects of Oestrogen Changes Executive function is influenced by oestrogen- in the brain the area associated to executive functions, memory and attention is the prefrontal cortex (Pettit, 2013). As during the female lifespan the levels of oestrogen changes, and the executive functions experiences some issues when these levels are low, for example after childbirth and around menopause (Craig et al., 2008). Although the low levels of oestrogen after childbirth and lactation are temporary, after the menopause these levels do not increase naturally. As the world population experience longer life span, some diseases are estimated to increase with age. One of the most common type of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease, which mostly occur in later life (Lephart Hedges, 2003). Alzheimer’s disease affects the working memory, attention planning and other executive functions; it is a progressive disease and it is considered by deteriorating cognitive deficits, affective disturbances, delusion, and on the later stages, it also start motor and sensory problems (Lephart Hedges, 2003). Most of the patients with Alzheimer’s disease showed episodic memory loss, semantic memory loss and depressed mood (Ka Birkha, 2000). In the brain of an Alzheimer’s patient, the episodic memory loss is related to severe pathological changes within hippocampal and parahippocampal structures of the medial temporal lobes (Hyman et al., 1984 as cited in Ka Birkha, 2000) and to a deficiency in the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Coyle et al., 1983 as cited in Ka Birkha, 2000). In 1975, a pioneer study in rats found that oestrogen upregulates the activity of choline acetyltransferase in the rats brain (Luine, Khylchevskaya, McEwen, 1975). After ten years, another study confirmed that the activity of choline acetyltransferase in the medial aspect of the horizontal diagonal band nucleus, the frontal cortex, and cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) of the dorsal hippocampus were increased after the administration of oestrogens (Luine, 1985). Furthermore, the human nucleus basalis of meynert (a telencephalic structure that provides most of the acetylcholine to the cerebral cortex) in Alzheimer’s disease has been noticed the upregulation of oestrogen receptors (Behl, 2002). Thus, many studies suggest the use of oestrogens as a treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, as in fact, oestrogens increases the activity of acetylcholine, promotes the growth of neurons and their connections, enhances blood flow in the brain and seems to constrain the toxic effect of ÃŽ ²-amyloid (â€Å"Alzheimer’s disease: recent progress and prospectsPart II.,† 2001). However, the prominent reason in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease with oestrogens is the low rate of Alzheimer’s disease in women who after menopause had used the hormone replacement therapy (â€Å"Alzheimer’s disease: recent progress and prospectsPart II.,† 2001). Despite of this fact, some studies showed that the use of oestrogen replacement therapy (ORT) had no improvement of the cognition and no halts the degeneration of women with Alzheimer’s disease (Larkin, 2000). Because of the changes of oestrogens during the women lifespan, some studies suggest that there is a critical time related to start the hormonal replacement therapy to have an effect in Alzheimer’s disease (Brinton, 2004; Ka Birkha, 2000; Pettit, 2013). Thus, oestrogen changes is not only affects women with Alzheimer’s disease, b ut also the executive functions in all women during their lifespan. Oestrogen is commonly known as female sex hormone, and there are three types of oestrogen, the 17ÃŽ ²-oestradiol, oestrone and oestriol (Darlington, 2002). There are two other types of sex hormones, the male sex hormone – testosterone, and the pregnancy hormone – progesterone. The release of these hormones are controlled by the hypothalamus through the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone which acts on the anterior pituitary gland to stimulate the release of the follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone (Darlington, 2002). During the female lifespan the levels of oestrogens change, such as menstrual cycle, pregnancy and menopause (Pettit, 2013). The menstrual cycle occurs during puberty and last until menopause, except during pregnancy. The ovulation occurs when there is a peak in the release of luteinising hormone, this hormone regulates the secretion of oestrogen, which in conjunction with the follicle-stimulating hormone control the development of t he follicle (Darlington, 2002). The oestrogen levels reaches the peak during ovulation phase (mid cycle) and the bottom during the menstrual phase (bleeding), during menstrual cycle (Pettit, 2013). In the pregnancy the levels of oestrogens also gradually change, they reach a peak by the third trimester of the pregnancy, and this peak will be the highest level of oestrogen in the female lifespan. On the other hand, the lowest level of oestrogen in a female lifespan will be the menopause, when the levels of oestrogens decline both in the brain and in the body (Melton, 2000 as cited in Pettit, 2013). The differentiation of the female physiology is this cyclic rise and fall of hormones levels (Darlington, 2002). Furthermore, oestrogen is not only responsible for reproductive functions, it has a role on the peripheral and central nervous systems, and it also affects the development, growth, differentiation, maturation and function of several tissues in the body (Behl, 2002). Some studies had investigated the differences between men and women and concluded that most of the differences in the brain mechanism and structure is related to oestrogens; the structural, cellular, and molecular differences in the brain is called true dimorphisms (Gillies McArthur, 2010). The main areas of the brain that are affect by these differences are the hippocampus, amygdala and cortex, which are responsible for the memory and cognition (Kelly et al., 1999; Baron-Cohen et al., 2005 as cited in Gillies McArthur, 2010). Additionally, oestrogen receptors are also found in astrocytes and other types of glial cell; in the hypothalamus, the amygdala, the preoptic area, and the forebrain are the highest levels of oestrogen receptors expression; and the oestrogen receptors density is greater in the hypothalamus than in extra hypothalamic regions, for instance the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex (Behl, 2002). To investigate how the fluctuations of oestrogen affect both the neuropsychological and neurophysiological parameters, and to visualise changes during the menstrual cycle, a study has use a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to image cortical activation patterns associated with cognitive and motor activation. The results showed that in both neuropsychological tasks blood oestrogen level had a profound effect on the size but not on the lateralisation or the localisation of cortical activation patterns; moreover a noticeable increase in perfusion in cortical areas involved in both cognitive tasks was noticed during the oestrogen peak in the female brain (Dietrich et al., 2001). Another study also investigate the oestrogen fluctuations during the menstrual phase, the results suggested that when the oestrogen are in their peak, some regions show enhanced activation; one of these regions was the cortical region, which is has a connection with auditory and linguistic functions, w hich mean that additional functional networks are recruited (Schà ¶ning et al., 2007). Craig and collegues (2008) stated that women in specific times of their lives, (for instance childbirth, and around menopause), commonly complain of memory problems, which are related with oestrogen changes; their results showed that a biological justification for previous reports might be the higher oestrogen levels, which is associated with improvement of verbal memory performance during the normal menstrual cycle. Therefore, the main problem of the oestrogen changes is the menopause, where the oestrogens levels drastically fall. Evidence from a study showed an executive dysfunction in a women at menopause without hormonal replacement therapy, the results also suggested that the interruption of cognitive processes is promoted by the frontal lobes rather than the hippocampus; additionally, oestrogen improves the execution of working memory tasks and the prefrontal cortex is essential for intact working memory (Keenan, Ezzat, Ginsburg, Moore, 2001). A longitudinal study showed significant differences in regional cerebral blood flow during the memory tasks between women on ORT and women without, also women on ORT had better performance on neuropsychological tests of figural and verbal memory (Resnick, Maki, Golski, Kraut, Zonderman, 1998). Hence many studies had showed the improvement of executive functions, memory and attention on the ORT for women in menopause, however there is a crucial timin g to start the ORT, the critical period hypothesis. The oestrogen need to be taken when neurological health is still intact to have positive effects, before or at the time of menopause, otherwise if the replacement start after menopause, it can have harmful effects (Rettberg, Yao, Brinton, 2014). In conclusion, oestrogen is very important to the best functioning of the female brain. Executive functions, memory and attention are especially related to the levels of oestrogen. During the female lifespan the levels of oestrogens naturally change, reaching the peak on the third trimester of pregnancy and the lowest levels at menopause. Many studies showed the importance of the oestrogen replacement therapy, not only to alleviate the menopause symptoms but especially on the improvement of cognition. However there is the critical period hypothesis, which suggest that the time to start the ORT is before or at the time of the menopause to have the beneficial effect of it. Although there is a relation between low oestrogen levels and Alzheimer’s disease, evidences showed that the use of OTR in Alzheimer’s patients had no improvement. Finally, oestrogens and time are together, and the crucial timing to start the OTR can modify a life, the importance of future researches in this area is to provide a better future for women and maybe decrease the numbers of Alzheimer’s patients.

Nepal Essay -- Nepal Economy Culture Essays

Nepal Despite nine development plans spanning five decades, Nepal remains one of the world’s poorest countries. Nepal’s underdevelopment is a result of the historical effects of unequal distribution of assets and social and economic status among different groups, and effects of recent development efforts that have generated further iniquitous income and assets distribution. Understanding Nepal’s underdevelopment has become particularly pressing in light of the Maoist insurgency that began in 1996. In addition to the deaths of more than 6,000 civilians, instability has caused economic stagnation, discouraged foreign investment, and prevented the expansion of the hydropower and tourism industries. Nepal’s future depends on an understanding of how its institutions have created inequity, and how it will respond to the need for institutional reform. Culturally, Nepal is a patriarchal and hierarchical society. Caste is important in the world’s only Hindu nation. Gender, ethnicity, land ownership, and location are also historically important social determinants. Nepal’s history and geography have contributed to the perpetuation of these cultural values. Historically, Nepal has been very isolated. Situated between China and India, it is bisected by the Himalayas. The country is divided into three bands running from east to west – the Himalayas furthest north, the flat and dry Terai in the South, and the middle hills sandwiched in between. Extreme differences in topography, and a lack of roadways and efficient transportation, have meant that communities tended to remain isolated and distinct, closely linked to traditional cultural practices and norms. Industry has been slow to change this, as most Nepalese depend upo... ...astern Nepal, respondents reported that â€Å"society does not recognize the merit of physical work in agriculture; it encourages people to prefer leisure over work, and sees working people as belonging to the lower classes. So far, foreign aided projects have not been able to alter people’s attitudes towards physical work by providing alternate examples† (Shrestha, 41). Even as development efforts increase, rural people mistrustful of exploitation, and depressed by development failures, are growing harder to reach. Nepal’s political crisis is a response to social inequalities increased and hardened by recent development. Future development will require radical reform: redistribution of resources and increased rural development, weakening of traditional power structures, increased access to and transparency in government, and independence from foreign interests.

What is there to Know about WNV and WNE Essay -- Biology Medical Biome

What is there to Know about WNV and WNE? West Nile Virus (WNV) is an arbovirus that causes West Nile Encephalitis (WNE), an inflammation of the brain. The virus was first found in an Ugandan woman, and spread throughout all areas of the world, from Europe to Oceania. WNV is virus carried by mosquitoes and birds. Other organisms are the secondary carriers of the virus. The first outbreak resulted in victims of WNE. Since then the U.S has been alert and cautious about the virus for public health. The virus is known to affect animals as well. Up to now there is no special treatment or vaccine for WNV and its symptoms. However, there are ways to preclude you from getting the virus. Though the chances of getting WNV and a fatal case are slim, the symptoms aren’t worth risking. West Nile Encephalitis is a brain inflammation that is caused by mosquitoes. WNE is new to the U.S.A and broke out less than a decade ago in one of the states. So far there aren’t any vaccines for WNV, but there are methods of prevention. Up to this day, WNE isn’t common; however, it is a brutal enemy to those who are infected. The first outbreak of WNE was in New York City in 1999. Four deaths occurred in 1999 due to WNE (Illinois Department of Public Health). Studies show that there was less involvement with their cortex, thalamus, and cerebellum. Their microglial modules that carried histiocytes and lymphocytes were dispersed and they also developed leptomeningitis. Two years later, in the autumn of 2001, the infection spread to Iowa and Missouri. There were 54 infected people in Illinois and a death in 2003 (Illinois Department of Public Health). By now, WNE has spread to the West Coast. Researchers aren’t sure how WNV or WNE was introduced to the U.S.A.... ...tious of areas that are reported to have infected mosquitoes. If anyone is going outside during the times of day or the places where they are prone to get infected, being cautious and careful can prevent a severe case of WNE. What Is There 5 References 1) Burke, A Cunha, MD. (2004, Dec). West Nile Encephalitis. eMedicine. 7/27/05: http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3160.htm 2) Dr. Tom Solomon. (2005, June). West Nile Encephalitis. Encephalitis Information Resource. 7/27/05: http://www.encephalitis.info/TheIllness/TypesEncephalitis/WestNile.html 3) Lee, M.C. 2003. West Nile Virus overview and abstracts. New York: NOVA 4) Illinois Department of Public Health. West Nile Virus. 7/27/05: http://www.idph.state.il.us/public/hb/hbwestnile.htm 5) White, Dennis J. et all. 2001. West Nile Virus Detection, Surveillance, and Control. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.

Colonial Synthesis in-Class Essay

Colonial Synthesis In-Class Essay The literature of the Colonial Period has left a positive mark upon American culture. The connotations of the literature are sometimes hypocritical, and are often contradictory to other works at the time. As a result, the messages conveyed through writing have not been overlooked. Source A’s narrative of an enslaved African American arriving in America would just be one of many that would take place over the course of 200 years.I remember in the vessel in which I was brought over, in the men's apartment, there were several brothers, who, in the sale, were sold in different lots; and it was very moving on this occasion to see and hear their cries at parting. â€Å"O, ye nominal Christians! might not an African ask you, learned you this from your God, who says unto you, Do unto all men as you would men should do unto you? † (Source A). The excerpt bluntly criticizes more prominent works at that time, from the staunch Puritan literature of Taylor. Make me O Lord, Thy spinning wheel complete. † (Source E) Taylor preached goodwill to men and stressed religious freedom, but he owned slaves at the same time. Jonathan Edwards, whom preached â€Å"So that, whatever some have imagined and pretended about promises made to natural men's earnest seeking and knocking, it is plain and manifest, that whatever pains a natural man takes in religion, whatever prayers he makes, till he believes in Christ, God is under no manner of obligation to keep him a moment from eternal destruction. (Source F) Many slave owners throughout the 18th and 19th century believed this, fueling conflicts like the Civil War and in some respect, the Civil Rights Movement. Racial persecution in the south can be attributed to blacks not necessarily being deemed by the Bible, as Puritans such as Edwards had preached. As a result, much of the negative bigotry had been sparked by Puritan work.On the other hand, Eqiuano influenced a much more positive as pect of American culture, as his autobiography can be deemed one of the earliest Abolitionist works. It depicted the cruel and bitter environment of a slave ship, and the often futile fate of being a slave. By being one of the first AfricanAmerican authors, many more African Americans after him would be inspired to write themselves.For better or for worse, early Abolitionist writings like Eqiuano’s and religious works like Taylor’s both have a significant impact for centuries after they have been written. They model conflicting sides of a society condoning secularism and one that promotes it. Whatever the case may be, these writings have given us a glimpse of early society in America, and better our understanding about the ways people responded to controversial subjects like slavery.

Chem Sba 1

Name: Derell Ruan Form: 4B1 SBA: Chemistry Aim: To determine which gas, Ammonia or hydrogen chloride defuses faster. Hypothesis: Ammonia will defuse faster than hydrogen chloride. Materials Equipment: Chemicals: * 2 retort clamp and stand Ammonia * 1 ? m glass tube * 2 250cm3 beakers * Cotton Wool * Stop clock * Meter rule * Tweezers * 2 Rubber bum Method: The equipment was collected. * The glass tube was placed between the two clamps ensuring that it was leveled. * A small amount of hydrochloric acid was poured into the beaker. * The cotton wool was placed at one end of the glass tube using tweezers. Seal it off with a rubber bum. * Repeating steps 3-5 simultaneously. * The stop clock was started, keeping record of time taken to the white cloud to form. * The meter rule was used to measure the distance of the white cloud from each end of the tube. ResultsChemical| Distance| Time ( in sec)| Rate of Diffusion| Molecular weight | Ammonia| 90| 285| 0. 315| 17. 03| Hydrochloric acid| 60 | 285| 0. 210| 36. 46| Interpretation of results: The purpose of the glass tube is to eliminate air currents and to let the gas molecules will move on their own. The gas molecules follow a path through the tube as they collide with the air molecules in the tube. Ammonia will diffuses faster because it has a faster rate of diffusion and it is almost twice a light as Hydrochloric acid.A cloud like figure should show up when the gases collide. Conclusion: The reaction which is taking place is: ammonia + hydrogen chloride > ammonium chloride NH3Â  (g) + HCl (g) > NH4Cl (s) The exact time taken for the cloud to form depended on the dimensions of the tube, and the amount of the solutions which are put on the cotton wool. The cloud formed nearer to the hydrochloric acid end of the tube because ammonia diffuses faster than hydrochloric acid.This is because hydrogen chloride has almost twice the molecular weight of ammonia, and the rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the square r oot of the molecular mass of the gas. The hypothesis was correct and is proven by the results of the experiment and what was interpreted was also proven by the results of the experiment. Limitations: The experiment could not have been conducted several times enabling the results to be more accurate, because of the high risk that it could have done to the human body.

Nursing Philosophy Essay

Introduction Philosophy originates with the Greek word philosophia, which translates as â€Å"the love of wisdom†. Philosophers are engaged in inquiry concerning the search for truth, the nature of universe and the meaning of human experience. Welch& Polifroni(1999). The aim of this paper is to compare and contrast the philosophical paradigms of Realism, Antirealism, Phenomenology , Postmodernism. To relate the Empiricism, Positivism, Historicism, and Relativism to the nature of scientific truth. Moreover, to discuss the significance of truth for nursing as a profession and as a science. The various paradigms are characterized by ontological, epistemological and methodological differences in their approaches to conceptualizing and conducting research, and in their contribution towards disciplinary knowledge construction. Weaver, and Olson. (2006). Table 1 illustrate theses differences between these philosophical paradigms. Realism and Antirealism Realism has an ontology which states that the structures creating the world cannot be directly observed. Its epistemology is that appearances do not necessarily reveal the mechanisms which cause these appearances, and its methodology therefore  involves the construction of theories which can account for these appearances. Wainwright,S. ( 1997). Realism, in the Aristotelian, holds that things and individuals have existence independent of human thought and that this extra-mental world is intelligible and forms a basis for evaluating propositions about the world. Whelton,B. (2002) 2 Philosophy course –First Assignment Positivism collapses the world into a single plane of events. In contrast, realism recovers the ontological depth between the three stratified domains and thereby establishes relations of natural necessity rather than the relations of logical necessity  (universality). Wainwright,S. ( 1997). Relevance of Realism to Nursing Realism proposes a common ontology and epistemology for the natural and social sciences. Realism enables the traditional natural and social science division in subjects like geography, psychology, medicine and nursing to be bridged. Realism can therefore provide ontological and epistemological basis for nursing. Wainwrigh( 1997). On the other hand, the interest her in the causal and epistemological ingredients of scientific realism because they support the claim that explanations are important in nursing science  and practice and that the aim of scientist is to discover better and better explanations. Gortner, and Schumacher,(1992). Relevance of Antirealism to Nursing It the positivist antirealism that make their views inappropriate for nursing science. It is not possible in positivism to deal with subjective aspects of person, nor with perceived relational processes, nor with explanations without translating them into physiological states or behaviors. One of the most serious consequences of an antilrealist construction of theories is that theories cannot explain. One of the major distinction  between scientific realism and antirealism is the way in which â€Å"theoretical entities† are understood. In the language of scientific realism the term â€Å"theoretical entities† usually means unobservable entities, states, or processes. The antirealists deny the existence of 3 Philosophy course –First Assignment unobservable entities or process. Antirealist assert that the notion of truth or falsity is relevant to observation even though it is not relevant to theory. Gortner, and Schumacher,(1992). Phenomenology For Edmund Husserl, phenomenology is â€Å"the reflective study of the essence of  consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view† Phenomenology, founded by Edmund Husserl, promotes the idea that the natural world is largely shaped by the human mind. Wikipedia, (2007). Phenomenology is philosophical movement whose primary objective is the direct investigation and description of phenomena as consciously experienced. It remains different from and in opposition to positivism because it is a theoretical, non causal, and attempts to be free of supposition. Welch(1999) P243). Postmodernism The essence of truth lies within the individual and the individual may change or  later alter that view dependent on the context and the circumstances. Thus, the postmodern worldview is that truth neither singular nor multiple; it is personal and highly individualized and contextually driven. Welch & Polifoni (1999)p-58) The Significance of Truth for Nursing as a Profession and as a Science. Science, philosophy and philosophy of science are all topics of great significance to nursing†¦the need to examine issues of what it means to know, what truth is, how we know and what can be learned from science and philosophy is central to growth in the 4 Philosophy course –First Assignment  discipline. Simultaneously, it is imperative that nurse scholars gain understanding of the divers scientific and philosophic traditions that have influenced the development of nursing knowledge in order to develop and enhance our science, our discipline and our profession. †. Welch and Polifroni (1999(p-1)) Philosophy of science in nursing seeks to understand truth, to examine prediction, causality and law, to critically relate theories, models and scientific systems. Theses goals are accomplished through the methods of philosophic inquiry of reflection and dialogue. Welch& Polifroni(1999(p-5)). In order to understand what truth is, Welch& Polifroni(1999) discussed the sources of truth ( Intuition, Authority, Tradition, Common Sense and Science)as well as the theories of truth such as correspondence theory; coherence theory; pragmatic theory; semantic and performative theory. These theories gave different interpretations for truth, for instance, correspondence theory suggests that truth is related to and correspond with reality, the truth is achieved through perceptions of the world, on the other hand for coherence theory, the truth is true if it is coherent while for the pragmatic theory the  truth is relative and related to the practicality and workableness of a solution. According to Newman, Sime and Corcoran-Perry(1991):’’ Nursing is the study of caring in the human health experience†¦nursing body of knowledge includes caring and human health experience. A body of knowledge that does not include caring and human health experience is not nursing knowledge. †. Truth can be achieved through knowing principles and causes of the natural kind behind phenomena. It is proposed that humans are the natural kind behind nursing phenomena. Thus, human nature provides proper principles (the truth) of nursing 5  Philosophy course –First Assignment practice†¦. It is proposed that it is knowledge of human nature that provides principles of human action, and thus human nature is a source of practical truth in nursing. Whelton . (2002). The realist ontological position assumes that an objective world exists independently of our knowledge, beliefs , theories or descriptions about it. This reality exists whether or not we can experience it or have conceptions of its nature. In contrast, several nonrealist positions have also been advanced, incorporating a wide variety of philosophical views pertaining to truth. These positions reject ontological and/or  epistemological realism, and therefore truth cannot be related to an external reality . Lomborg and Kirkevold (2003). However, Gortner and Schumacher (1992 )stated that ‘’ Nursing scholars can explore scientific realism for the insights it may provide for nursing science â€Å". Moreover, Gortner and Schumacher (1992) proposed that â€Å" Scientific realism is relevant to nursing science in the following ways: (1) It supports the full range of nursing theory; (2) It affirms the importance of including subjective client states in nursing theory and refutes the claim of the positivists that if it is not observable, it does not exist. ;(3) It adds the idea of the substantive content of explanations to discussion about forms of explanation;(4) It includes the notion of truth as a regulative ideal in science and claims that better theories are theories that are closer to the truth†. 6 Philosophy course –First Assignment Relate the Empiricism, Positivism, Historicism, and Relativism to the nature of scientific truth Positivism Positivist approaches are founded on an ontology that the things we experience are things that exist. Its epistemology requires that this experience is verified through the  deductive methodology of the `scientific method’ Wainwright,S. ( 1997). The positivistic philosophy of science will for example argue that scientific knowledge is objective and should be verified accordingly. Nyatanga(2005). The Relevance of Positivism to Nursing : It the positivist antirealism that make their views inappropriate for nursing science. It is not possible in positivism to deal with subjective aspects of person, nor with perceived relational processes, nor with explanations without translating them into physiological states or behaviors. One of the most serious consequences of an antilrealist  construction of theories is that theories cannot explain. Gortner, and Schumacher, (1992). EMPIRICISM Empiricism in its classical sense was a philosophical doctrine that considered observation to be the foundation of knowledge. Gortner and Schumacher(1992). Contemporary empiricism is a paradigm that has the ability to facilitate the application of the scientific facts learned from empirical methods within the appropriate context by taking interpretative knowledge into account†¦ It thus seems apparent that a broader view of scientific knowledge is required, and this is where contemporary views of 7  Philosophy course –First Assignment empiricism are more applicable to the practice of nursing. However, before reviewing the basic tenets of contemporary empiricism, there is a need to provide an overview of interpretive methods and their ability to provide a context or structure for the use of empirical knowledge. Pluralism supports the assumption of contemporary empiricism that human responses can be identified, measured and understood even considering their complex nature. Therefore, an important part of nursing knowledge acquisition includes a synthesis of the data in order to better understand the  synergistic effects of the whole, which cannot be learned simply by studying its parts. Traditional empiricism provides a basis for the study of certain types of knowledge that have made important contributions to the science of nursing. Giuliano,K. ( 2003) The strength of contemporary empiricism is that it values traditional empirical knowledge but takes interpretive knowledge into account in order to provide a context for the appropriate application of that knowledge. The pluralistic nature of contemporary empiricism gives it the ability to bridge the gap between the facts of scientific  knowledge and the use of scientific knowledge in order to facilitate the application of all types of nursing knowledge. Giuliano,K. ( 2003). HISTORICISM The main protagonist of historicism is Kuhn. He was dismayed to find that traditional accounts of the philosophy of science bore no comparison with historical 8 Philosophy course –First Assignment evidence. He then set out to establish a theory of the philosophy of science in keeping with historical evidence as he saw it (hence the term historicism). Nyatanga (2005). Relativism Epistemological relativism view of truth and falsity in general are relative. An epistemological relativist denies that anything at all can be known with certainty. According to hard core epistemological relativism, everything is a matter of opinion, including science. In this view of truth, nursing science has much knowledge that is derived from opinion and personal experience and consequently it is relative knowledge. Summary The importance and significance of the philosophical world views of realism, antirealism, phenomenology , postmodernism, positivism, empiricism, relativism and historicism for nursing science and profession were explored in this paper. However, this  area need more detailed exploration through our philosophy course in order to understand the similarities and differences between these philosophical worldviews and how we can integrate this knowledge in our practice and education. 9 Philosophy course –First Assignment References Giuliano,K. (2003). Expanding the use of empiricism in nursing: can we bridge the gap between knowledge and clinical practice? Nursing Philosophy. 2003,4, pp. 44–52. Gortner,S. and Schumacher,K. (1992). (Mis)conception and Reconceptions about Traditional Science. Advances in Nursing Science, 1992, 14(4):1-11 Lomborg,K. and Kirkevold,M.(2003). Truth and validity in grounded theory – a reconsidered realist interpretation of the criteria: fit, work, relevance and modifiability. Nursing Philosophy, 2003,4, pp. 189–200. Newman,M. , Sime, A. , and Cororan-Perry. .(1991)The Focus of the Discipline of Nursing. Advances in Nursing Science,(1991),14(1)1-6. Nyatanga, L. (2005). Nursing and the philosophy of science. Nurse Education Today (2005) 25, 670–674 Wainwright, S. ( 1997). A new paradigm for nursing: the potential of realism. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 1997, 26, 1262-1271 Weaver, K. and Olson, J. (2006). Understanding paradigms used for nursing  research. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2006 – Vol. 53 Issue 4 pages 459–469 10 Philosophy course –First Assignment Welch,M. and Polifoni,E. (1999) . Perspectives on Philosophy of Science in Nursing. An Historical and Contemporary Anthology. Copyright 1999. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . Whelton,B. (2002) Human nature as a source of practical truth: Aristotelian–Thomistic realism and the practical science of nursing. Nursing Philosophy,2002, 3, pp. 35–46 Wikipedia, (2007). Phenomenology. Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Phenomenology.